Make exactly 24 Anki flashcards from the material below.
Focus on high-yield facts a medical student is tested on: mechanisms, first-line treatments, classic signs, side effects and buzzwords. Each card tests one fact; answers are under 15 words.
Only use facts that are in the material. Don't invent anything.
Answer with the cards only, one card per line, in this format: front;back
No numbering, no headings, no blank lines, no other text. Never use a semicolon inside a card.

Material:
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Cardiology: Structure and
Physiology of the Heart
Lecture notes

--- Page 2 ---
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
 Structure of the Heart
work).



 The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's
 closed fist with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline.

 The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the parietal layers of a serous
 membrane. The visceral layer of the serous membrane forms the epicardium.

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Layers of the Heart Wall
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 Three layers of tissue form the heart wall. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the
 middle layer is the myocardium, and the inner layer is the endocardium.

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Chambers of the Heart
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers

 Right atrium

 Right ventricle

 Left atrium

 Left ventricle

 The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are
 thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the
 heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium present, which reflects
 the amount of force each chamber is required to generate.

 The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives
 oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.

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Valves of the Heart
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid flowing in one direction and the heart is no
 exception. The heart has two types of valves that keep the blood flowing in the correct direction.
 The valves between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid
 valves), while those at the bases of the large vessels leaving the ventricles are called semilunar
 valves.

 The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the
 bicuspid, or mitral, valve. The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the
 pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic
 semilunar valve.

 When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back
 into the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing
 back into the ventricles.

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Pathway of Blood through the Heart
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then
 through the left side, it is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at the same
 time. The heart works as two pumps, one on the right and one on the left, working
 simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then is pumped to
 the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left
 ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.

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Blood Supply to the Myocardium
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen
 and nutrients to function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of
 blood vessels to bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove waste products.

 The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the walls of
 the myocardium. After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it enters a system
 of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of the cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, which opens
 into the right atrium.

--- Page 8 ---
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
 Physiology of the Heart
work).



 The conduction system includes several components. The first part of the conduction system is
 the sinoatrial node. Without any neural stimulation, the sinoatrial node rhythmically initiates
 impulses 70 to 80 times per minute. Because it establishes the basic rhythm of the heartbeat, it is
 called the pacemaker of the heart. Other parts of the conduction system include the
 atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, and conduction myofibers. All of
 these components coordinate the contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers.

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Cardiac Cycle
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 The cardiac cycle refers to the alternating contraction and relaxation of the myocardium in the
 walls of the heart chambers, coordinated by the conduction system, during one heartbeat. Systole
 is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle, and diastole is the relaxation phase. At a normal
 heart rate, one cardiac cycle lasts for 0.8 second.

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Heart Sounds
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 The sounds associated with the heartbeat are due to vibrations in the tissues and blood caused by
 closure of the valves. Abnormal heart sounds are called murmurs.

--- Page 11 ---
Heart Rate
Text: SEER Training Modules, U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (public domain, US government
work).

 The sinoatrial node, acting alone, produces a constant rhythmic heart rate. Regulating factors are
 reliant on the atrioventricular node to increase or decrease the heart rate to adjust cardiac output
 to meet the changing needs of the body. Most changes in the heart rate are mediated through the
 cardiac center in the medulla oblongata of the brain. The center has both sympathetic and
 parasympathetic components that adjust the heart rate to meet the changing needs of the body.

 Peripheral factors such as emotions, ion concentrations, and body temperature may affect heart
 rate. These are usually mediated through the cardiac center.